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\usepackage[version=3]{mhchem} % this is a great package for formatting chemical reactions |
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\begin{document} |
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|
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\title{Friction at Water / Ice-I$_\mathrm{h}$ interfaces: Do the |
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Facets of Ice Have Different Hydrophilicity?} |
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|
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\author{Patrick B. Louden} |
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|
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\author{J. Daniel Gezelter} |
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\email{gezelter@nd.edu.} |
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\affiliation{Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University |
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of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556} |
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|
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\date{\today} |
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|
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\begin{abstract} |
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In this follow up paper of the basal and prismatic facets of the |
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Ice-I$_\mathrm{h}$/water interface, we present the |
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pyramidal and secondary prismatic |
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interfaces for both the quiescent and sheared systems. The structural and |
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dynamic interfacial widths for all four crystal facets were found to be in good |
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agreement, and were found to be independent of the shear rate over the shear |
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rates investigated. |
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Decomposition of the molecular orientational time correlation function showed |
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different behavior for the short- and longer-time decay components approaching |
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normal to the interface. Lastly we show through calculation of the interfacial |
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friction coefficient that the basal and pyramidal facets are more |
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hydrophilic than the prismatic and secondary prismatic facets. |
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|
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\end{abstract} |
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|
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\maketitle |
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|
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\section{Introduction} |
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Explain a little bit about ice Ih, point group stuff. |
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|
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Mention previous work done / on going work by other people. Haymet and Rick |
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seem to be investigating how the interfaces is perturbed by the presence of |
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ions. This is the conlcusion of a recent publication of the basal and |
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prismatic facets of ice Ih, now presenting the pyramidal and secondary |
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prismatic facets under shear. |
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|
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\section{Methodology} |
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|
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\begin{figure} |
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\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{Pyr_comic_strip} |
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\caption{\label{fig:pyrComic} The pyramidal interface with a shear |
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rate of 3.8 ms\textsuperscript{-1}. Lower panel: the local tetrahedral order |
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parameter, $q(z)$, (black circles) and the hyperbolic tangent fit (red line). |
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Middle panel: the imposed thermal gradient required to maintain a fixed |
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interfacial temperature. Upper panel: the transverse velocity gradient that |
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develops in response to an imposed momentum flux. The vertical dotted lines |
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indicate the locations of the midpoints of the two interfaces.} |
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\end{figure} |
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|
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\begin{figure} |
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\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{SP_comic_strip} |
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\caption{\label{fig:spComic} The secondary prismatic interface with a shear |
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rate of 3.5 \ |
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ms\textsuperscript{-1}. Panel descriptions match those in figure \ref{fig:pyrComic}.} |
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\end{figure} |
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|
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\subsection{Pyramidal and secondary prismatic system construction} |
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|
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The construction of the pyramidal and secondary prismatic systems follows that |
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of |
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the basal and prismatic systems presented elsewhere\cite{Louden13}, however |
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the ice crystals and water boxes were equilibrated and combined at 50K |
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instead of 225K. The ice / water systems generated were then equilibrated |
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to 225K. The resulting pyramidal system was |
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$37.47 \times 29.50 \times 93.02$ \AA\ with 1216 |
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SPC/E molecules in the ice slab, and 2203 in the liquid phase. The secondary |
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prismatic system generated was $71.87 \times 31.66 \times 161.55$ \AA\ with |
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3840 |
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SPC/E molecules in the ice slab and 8176 molecules in the liquid phase. |
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|
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\subsection{Computational details} |
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% Do we need to justify the sims at 225K? |
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% No crystal growth or shrinkage over 2 successive 1 ns NVT simulations for |
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% either the pyramidal or sec. prismatic ice/water systems. |
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|
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The computational details performed here were equivalent to those reported |
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in our previous publication\cite{Louden13}. The only changes made to the |
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previously reported procedure were the following. VSS-RNEMD moves were |
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attempted every 2 fs instead of every 50 fs. This was done to minimize |
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the magnitude of each individual VSS-RNEMD perturbation to the system. |
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|
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All pyramidal simulations were performed under the canonical (NVT) ensamble |
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except those |
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during which statistics were accumulated for the orientational correlation |
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function, which were performed under the microcanonical (NVE) ensamble. All |
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secondary prismatic |
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simulations were performed under the NVE ensamble. |
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|
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\section{Results and discussion} |
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\subsection{Interfacial width} |
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In the literature there is good agreement that between the solid ice and |
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the bulk water, there exists a region of 'slush-like' water molecules. |
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In this region, the water molecules are structurely distinguishable and |
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behave differently than those of the solid ice or the bulk water. |
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The characteristics of this region have been defined by both structural |
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and dynamic properties; and its width has been measured by the change of these |
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properties from their bulk liquid values to those of the solid ice. |
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Examples of these properties include the density, the diffusion constant, and |
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the translational order profile. \cite{Bryk02,Karim90,Gay02,Hayward01,Hayward02,Karim88} |
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|
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Since the VSS-RNEMD moves used to impose the thermal and velocity gradients |
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perturb the momenta of the water molecules in |
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the systems, parameters that depend on translational motion may give |
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faulty results. A stuructural parameter will be less effected by the |
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VSS-RNEMD perturbations to the system. Due to this, we have used the |
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local tetrahedral order parameter to quantify the width of the interface, |
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which was originally described by Kumar\cite{Kumar09} and |
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Errington\cite{Errington01}, and used by Bryk and Haymet in a previous study |
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of ice/water interfaces.\cite{Bryk2004b} |
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|
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The local tetrahedral order parameter, $q(z)$, is given by |
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\begin{equation} |
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q(z) = \int_0^L \sum_{k=1}^{N} \Bigg(1 -\frac{3}{8}\sum_{i=1}^{3} |
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\sum_{j=i+1}^{4} \bigg(\cos\psi_{ikj}+\frac{1}{3}\bigg)^2\Bigg) |
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\delta(z_{k}-z)\mathrm{d}z \Bigg/ N_z |
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\label{eq:qz} |
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\end{equation} |
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where $\psi_{ikj}$ is the angle formed between the oxygen sites of molecules |
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$i$,$k$, and $j$, where the centeral oxygen is located within molecule $k$ and |
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molecules $i$ and $j$ are two of the closest four water molecules |
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around molecule $k$. All four closest neighbors of molecule $k$ are also |
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required to reside within the first peak of the pair distribution function |
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for molecule $k$ (typically $<$ 3.41 \AA\ for water). |
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$N_z = \int\delta(z_k - z) \mathrm{d}z$ is a normalization factor to account |
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for the varying population of molecules within each finite-width bin. |
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|
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To determine the width of the interfaces, each of the systems were |
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divided into 100 artificial bins along the |
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$z$-dimension, and the local tetrahedral order parameter, $q(z)$, was |
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time-averaged for each of the bins, resulting in a tetrahedrality profile of |
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the system. These profiles are shown across the $z$-dimension of the systems |
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in panel $a$ of Figures \ref{fig:pyrComic} |
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and \ref{fig:spComic} (black circles). The $q(z)$ function has a range of |
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(0,1), where a larger value indicates a more tetrahedral environment. |
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The $q(z)$ for the bulk liquid was found to be $\approx $ 0.77, while values of |
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$\approx $ 0.92 were more common for the ice. The tetrahedrality profiles were |
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fit using a hyperbolic tangent\cite{Louden13} designed to smoothly fit the |
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bulk to ice |
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transition, while accounting for the thermal influence on the profile by the |
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kinetic energy exchanges of the VSS-RNEMD moves. In panels $b$ and $c$, the |
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resulting thermal and velocity gradients from the imposed kinetic energy and |
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momentum fluxes can be seen. The verticle dotted |
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lines traversing all three panels indicate the midpoints of the interface |
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as determined by the hyperbolic tangent fit of the tetrahedrality profiles. |
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|
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From fitting the tetrahedrality profiles for each of the 0.5 nanosecond |
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simulations (panel c of Figures \ref{fig:spComic} and \ref{fig:pyrComic}) |
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by Eq. 6\cite{Louden13},we find the interfacial width to be |
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3.2 $\pm$ 0.2 and 3.2 $\pm$ 0.2 \AA\ for the control system with no applied |
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momentum flux for both the pyramidal and secondary prismatic systems. |
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Over the range of shear rates investigated, |
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0.6 $\pm$ 0.2 $\mathrm{ms}^{-1} \rightarrow$ 5.6 $\pm$ 0.4 $\mathrm{ms}^{-1}$ |
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for the pyramidal system and 0.9 $\pm$ 0.3 $\mathrm{ms}^{-1} \rightarrow$ 5.4 |
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$\pm$ 0.1 $\mathrm{ms}^{-1}$ for the secondary prismatic, we found no |
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significant change in the interfacial width. This follows our previous |
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findings of the basal and |
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prismatic systems, in which the interfacial width was invarient of the |
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shear rate of the ice. The interfacial width of the quiescent basal and |
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prismatic systems was found to be 3.2 $\pm$ 0.4 \AA\ and 3.6 $\pm$ 0.2 \AA\ |
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respectively, over the range of shear rates investigated, 0.6 $\pm$ 0.3 |
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$\mathrm{ms}^{-1} \rightarrow$ 5.3 $\pm$ 0.5 $\mathrm{ms}^{-1}$ for the basal |
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system and 0.9 $\pm$ 0.2 $\mathrm{ms}^{-1} \rightarrow$ 4.5 $\pm$ 0.1 |
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$\mathrm{ms}^{-1}$ for the prismatic. |
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|
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These results indicate that the surface structure of the exposed ice crystal |
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has little to no effect on how far into the bulk the ice-like structural |
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ordering is. Also, it appears that the interface is not structurally effected |
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by shearing the ice through water. |
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|
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|
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\subsection{Orientational dynamics} |
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%Should we include the math here? |
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The orientational time correlation function, |
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\begin{equation}\label{C(t)1} |
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C_{2}(t)=\langle P_{2}(\mathbf{u}(0)\cdot \mathbf{u}(t))\rangle, |
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\end{equation} |
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helps indicate the local environment around the water molecules. The function |
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begins with an initial value of unity, and decays to zero as the water molecule |
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loses memory of its former orientation. Observing the rate at which this decay |
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occurs can provide insight to the mechanism and timescales for the relaxation. |
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In eq. \eqref{C(t)1}, $P_{2}$ is the second-order Legendre polynomial, and |
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$\mathbf{u}$ is the bisecting HOH vector. The angle brackets indicate |
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an ensemble average over all the water molecules in a given spatial region. |
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|
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To investigate the dynamics of the water molecules across the interface, the |
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systems were divided in the $z$-dimension into bins, each $\approx$ 3 \AA\ |
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wide, and \eqref{C(t)1} was computed for each of the bins. A water |
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molecule was allocated to a particular bin if it was initially in the bin |
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at time zero. To compute \eqref{C(t)1}, each 0.5 ns simulation was followed |
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by an additional 200 ps NVE simulation during which the |
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position and orientations of each molecule were recorded every 0.1 ps. |
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|
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The data obtained for each bin was then fit to a triexponential decay given by |
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\begin{equation}\label{C(t)_fit} |
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C_{2}(t) \approx a e^{-t/\tau_\mathrm{short}} + b e^{-t/\tau_\mathrm{middle}} +\ |
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c |
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e^{-t/\tau_\mathrm{long}} + (1-a-b-c) |
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\end{equation} |
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where $\tau_{short}$ corresponds to the librational motion of the water |
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molecules, $\tau_{middle}$ corresponds to jumps between the breaking and |
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making of hydrogen bonds, and $\tau_{long}$ corresponds to the translational |
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motion of the water molecules. The last term in \eqref{C(t)_fit} accounts |
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for the water molecules trapped in the ice which do not experience any |
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long-time orientational decay. |
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|
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In Figures \ref{fig:PyrOrient} and \ref{fig:SPorient} we see the $z$-coordinate |
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profiles for the three decay constants, $\tau_{short}$ (panel a), |
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$\tau_{middle}$ (panel b), |
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and $\tau_{long}$ (panel c) for the pyramidal and secondary prismatic systems |
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respectively. The control experiments (no shear) are shown in black, and |
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an experiment with an imposed momentum flux is shown in red. The vertical |
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dotted line traversing all three panels denotes the midpoint of the |
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interface as determined by the local tetrahedral order parameter fitting. |
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In the liquid regions of both systems, we see that $\tau_{middle}$ and |
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$\tau_{long}$ have approximately consistent values of $3-6$ ps and $30-40$ ps, |
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resepctively, and increase in value as we approach the interface. Conversely, |
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in panel a, we see that $\tau_{short}$ decreases from the liquid value |
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of $72-76$ fs as we approach the interface. We believe this speed up is due to |
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the constrained motion of librations closer to the interface. Both the |
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approximate values for the decays and trends approaching the interface match |
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those reported previously for the basal and prismatic interfaces. |
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|
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As done previously, we have attempted to quantify the distance, $d_{pyramidal}$ |
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and $d_{secondary prismatic}$, from the |
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interface that the deviations from the bulk liquid values begin. This was done |
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by fitting the orientational decay constant $z$-profiles by |
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\begin{equation}\label{tauFit} |
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\tau(z)\approx\tau_{liquid}+(\tau_{wall}-\tau_{liquid})e^{-(z-z_{wall})/d} |
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\end{equation} |
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where $\tau_{liquid}$ and $\tau_{wall}$ are the liquid and projected wall |
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values of the decay constants, $z_{wall}$ is the location of the interface, |
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and $d$ is the displacement from the interface at which these deviations |
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occur. The values for $d_{pyramidal}$ and $d_{secondary prismatic}$ were |
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determined |
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for each of the decay constants, and then averaged for better statistics |
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($\tau_{middle}$ was ommitted for secondary prismatic). For the pyramidal |
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system, |
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$d_{pyramidal}$ was found to be 2.7 \AA\ for both the control and the sheared |
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system. We found $d_{secondary prismatic}$ to be slightly larger than |
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$d_{pyramidal}$ for both the control and with an applied shear, with |
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displacements of $4$ \AA\ for the control system and $3$ \AA\ for the |
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experiment with the imposed momentum flux. These values are consistent with |
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those found for the basal ($d_{basal}\approx2.9$ \AA\ ) and prismatic |
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($d_{prismatic}\approx3.5$ \AA\ ) systems. |
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|
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\subsection{Coefficient of friction of the interfaces} |
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While investigating the kinetic coefficient of friction, there was found |
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to be a dependence for $\mu_k$ |
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on the temperature of the liquid water in the system. We believe this |
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dependence |
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arrises from the sharp discontinuity of the viscosity for the SPC/E model |
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at temperatures approaching 200 K\cite{kuang12}. Due to this, we propose |
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a weighting to the interfacial friction coefficient, $\kappa$ by the |
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shear viscosity of the fluid at 225 K. The interfacial friction coefficient |
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relates the shear stress with the relative velocity of the fluid normal to the |
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interface: |
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\begin{equation}\label{Shenyu-13} |
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j_{z}(p_{x}) = \kappa[v_{x}(fluid)-v_{x}(solid)] |
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\end{equation} |
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where $j_{z}(p_{x})$ is the applied momentum flux (shear stress) across $z$ |
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in the |
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$x$-dimension, and $v_{x}$(fluid) and $v_{x}$(solid) are the velocities |
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directly adjacent to the interface. The shear viscosity, $\eta(T)$, of the |
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fluid can be determined under a linear response of the momentum |
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gradient to the applied shear stress by |
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\begin{equation}\label{Shenyu-11} |
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j_{z}(p_{x}) = \eta(T) \frac{\partial v_{x}}{\partial z}. |
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\end{equation} |
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Using eqs \eqref{Shenyu-13} and \eqref{Shenyu-11}, we can find the following |
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expression for $\kappa$, |
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\begin{equation}\label{kappa-1} |
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\kappa = \eta(T) \frac{\partial v_{x}}{\partial z}\frac{1}{[v_{x}(fluid)-v_{x}(solid)]}. |
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\end{equation} |
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Here is where we will introduce the weighting term of $\eta(225)/\eta(T)$ |
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giving us |
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\begin{equation}\label{kappa-2} |
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\kappa = \frac{\eta(225)}{[v_{x}(fluid)-v_{x}(solid)]}\frac{\partial v_{x}}{\partial z}. |
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\end{equation} |
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|
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To obtain the value of $\eta(225)$ for the SPC/E model, a $31.09 \times 29.38 |
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\times 124.39$ \AA\ box with 3744 SPC/E liquid water molecules was |
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equilibrated to 225K, |
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and 5 unique shearing experiments were performed. Each experiment was |
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conducted in the NVE and were 5 ns in |
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length. The VSS were attempted every timestep, which was set to 2 fs. |
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For our SPC/E systems, we found $\eta(225)$ to be 0.0148 $\pm$ 0.0007 Pa s, |
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roughly ten times larger than the value found for 280 K SPC/E bulk water by |
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Kuang\cite{kuang12}. |
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|
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The interfacial friction coefficient, $\kappa$, can equivalently be expressed |
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as the ratio of the viscosity of the fluid to the slip length, $\delta$, which |
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is an indication of how 'slippery' the interface is. |
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\begin{equation}\label{kappa-3} |
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\kappa = \frac{\eta}{\delta} |
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\end{equation} |
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In each of the systems, the interfacial temperature was kept fixed to 225K, |
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which ensured the viscosity of the fluid at the |
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interace was approximately the same. Thus, any significant variation in |
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$\kappa$ between |
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the systems indicates differences in the 'slipperiness' of the interfaces. |
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As each of the ice systems are sheared relative to liquid water, the |
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'slipperiness' of the interface can be taken as an indication of how |
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hydrophobic or hydrophilic the interface is. The calculated $\kappa$ values |
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found for the four crystal facets of Ice-I$_\mathrm{h}$ investigated are shown |
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in Table \ref{tab:kapa}. The basal and pyramidal facets were found to have |
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similar values of $\kappa \approx$ 0.0006 |
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(amu \AA\textsuperscript{-2} fs\textsuperscript{-1}), while values of |
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$\kappa \approx$ 0.0003 (amu \AA\textsuperscript{-2} fs\textsuperscript{-1}) |
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were found for the prismatic and secondary prismatic systems. |
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These results indicate that the basal and pyramidal facets are |
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more hydrophilic than the prismatic and secondary prismatic facets. |
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%This indicates something about the similarity between the two facets that |
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%share similar values... |
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%Maybe find values for kappa for other materials to compare against? |
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|
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\begin{table}[h] |
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\centering |
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\caption{$\kappa$ values for the basal, prismatic, pyramidal, and secondary \ |
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prismatic facets of Ice-I$_\mathrm{h}$} |
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\label{tab:kappa} |
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\begin{tabular}{|ccc|} \hline |
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& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{$\kappa_{Drag direction}$ (amu \AA\textsuperscript{-2} fs\textsuperscript{-1})} \\ |
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Interface & $\kappa_{x}$ & $\kappa_{y}$ \\ \hline |
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basal & $0.00059 \pm 0.00003$ & $0.00065 \pm 0.00008$ \\ |
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prismatic & $0.00030 \pm 0.00002$ & $0.00030 \pm 0.00001$ \\ |
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pyramidal & $0.00058 \pm 0.00004$ & $0.00061 \pm 0.00005$ \\ |
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secondary prismatic & $0.00035 \pm 0.00001$ & $0.00033 \pm 0.00002$ \\ \hline |
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\end{tabular} |
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\end{table} |
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|
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|
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|
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|
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%\begin{table}[h] |
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%\centering |
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%\caption{Solid-liquid friction coefficients (measured in amu~fs\textsuperscript\ |
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%{-1}). \\ |
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%\textsuperscript{a} See ref. \onlinecite{Louden13}. } |
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%\label{tab:lambda} |
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%\begin{tabular}{|ccc|} \hline |
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% & \multicolumn{2}{c|}{Drag direction} \\ |
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% Interface & $x$ & $y$ \\ \hline |
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% basal\textsuperscript{a} & $0.08 \pm 0.02$ & $0.09 \pm 0.03$ \\ |
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% prismatic (T = 225)\textsuperscript{a} & $0.037 \pm 0.008$ & $0.04 \pm 0.01$ \\ |
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% prismatic (T = 230) & $0.10 \pm 0.01$ & $0.070 \pm 0.006$\\ |
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% pyramidal & $0.13 \pm 0.03$ & $0.14 \pm 0.03$ \\ |
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% secondary prismatic & $0.13 \pm 0.02$ & $0.12 \pm 0.03$ \\ \hline |
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%\end{tabular} |
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%\end{table} |
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|
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|
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\begin{figure} |
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\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{Pyr-orient} |
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\caption{\label{fig:PyrOrient} The three decay constants of the |
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orientational time correlation function, $C_2(t)$, for water as a function |
398 |
of distance from the center of the ice slab. The vertical dashed line |
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indicates the edge of the pyramidal ice slab determined by the local order |
400 |
tetrahedral parameter. The control (black circles) and sheared (red squares) |
401 |
experiments were fit by a shifted exponential decay (Eq. 9\cite{Louden13}) |
402 |
shown by the black and red lines respectively. The upper two panels show that |
403 |
translational and hydrogen bond making and breaking events slow down |
404 |
through the interface while approaching the ice slab. The bottom most panel |
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shows the librational motion of the water molecules speeding up approaching |
406 |
the ice block due to the confined region of space allowed for the molecules |
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to move in.} |
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\end{figure} |
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|
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\begin{figure} |
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\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{SP-orient-less} |
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\caption{\label{fig:SPorient} Decay constants for $C_2(t)$ at the secondary |
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prismatic face. Panel descriptions match those in \ref{fig:PyrOrient}.} |
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\end{figure} |
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|
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|
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|
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\section{Conclusion} |
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We present the results of molecular dynamics simulations of the pyrmaidal |
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and secondary prismatic facets of an SPC/E model of the |
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Ice-I$_\mathrm{h}$/water interface. The ice was sheared through the liquid |
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water while being exposed to a thermal gradient to maintain a stable |
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interface by using the minimally perturbing VSS RNEMD method. In agreement |
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with our previous findings for the basal and prismatic facets, the interfacial |
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width was found to be independent of shear rate as measured by the local |
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tetrahedral order parameter. This width was found to be |
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3.2~$\pm$ 0.2~\AA\ for both the pyramidal and the secondary prismatic systems. |
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These values are in good agreement with our previously calculated interfacial |
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widths for the basal (3.2~$\pm$ 0.4~\AA\ ) and prismatic (3.6~$\pm$ 0.2~\AA\ ) |
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systems. |
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|
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Orientational dynamics of the Ice-I$_\mathrm{h}$/water interfaces were studied |
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by calculation of the orientational time correlation function at varying |
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displacements normal to the interface. The decays were fit |
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to a tri-exponential decay, where the three decay constants correspond to |
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the librational motion of the molecules driven by the restoring forces of |
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existing hydrogen bonds ($\tau_{short}$ $\mathcal{O}$(10 fs)), jumps between |
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two different hydrogen bonds ($\tau_{middle}$ $\mathcal{O}$(1 ps)), and |
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translational motion of the molecules ($\tau_{long}$ $\mathcal{O}$(100 ps)). |
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$\tau_{short}$ was found to decrease approaching the interface due to the |
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constrained motion of the molecules as the local environment becomes more |
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ice-like. Conversely, the two longer-time decay constants were found to |
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increase at small displacements from the interface. As seen in our previous |
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work on the basal and prismatic facets, there appears to be a dynamic |
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interface width at which deviations from the bulk liquid values occur. |
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We had previously found $d_{basal}$ and $d_{prismatic}$ to be approximately |
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2.8~\AA\ and 3.5~\AA. We found good agreement of these values for the |
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pyramidal and secondary prismatic systems with $d_{pyramidal}$ and |
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$d_{secondary prismatic}$ to be 2.7~\AA\ and 3~\AA. For all four of the |
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facets, no apparent dependence of the dynamic width on the shear rate was |
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found. |
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|
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%Paragraph summarizing the Kappa values |
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The interfacial friction coefficient, $\kappa$, was determined for each facet |
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interface. We were able to reach an expression for $\kappa$ as a function of |
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the velocity profile of the system which is scaled by the viscosity of the liquid |
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at 225 K. In doing so, we have obtained an expression for $\kappa$ which is |
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independent of temperature differences of the liquid water at far displacements |
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from the interface. We found the basal and pyramidal facets to have |
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similar $\kappa$ values, of $\kappa \approx$ 0.0006 |
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(amu \AA\textsuperscript{-2} fs\textsuperscript{-1}). However, the |
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prismatic and secondary prismatic facets were found to have $\kappa$ values of |
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$\kappa \approx$ 0.0003 (amu \AA\textsuperscript{-2} fs\textsuperscript{-1}). |
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As these ice facets are being sheared relative to liquid water, with the |
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structural and dynamic width of all four |
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interfaces being approximately the same, the difference in the coefficient of |
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friction indicates the hydrophilicity of the crystal facets are not |
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equivalent. Namely, that the basal and pyramidal facets of Ice-I$_\mathrm{h}$ |
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are more hydrophilic than the prismatic and secondary prismatic facets. |
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|
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|
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\begin{acknowledgments} |
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Support for this project was provided by the National |
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Science Foundation under grant CHE-1362211. Computational time was |
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provided by the Center for Research Computing (CRC) at the |
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University of Notre Dame. |
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\end{acknowledgments} |
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|
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\newpage |
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\bibliography{iceWater} |
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\end{document} |